Social Media Content Creation With The Social Message Optimizer

Social Media Content Creation With The Social Message Optimizer Social media engagement. Every marketer wants more of it. So, other than  creating content that tends to perform well on social media how can you  write the best social media posts ever to boost  your engagement? It turns out, that- in addition to creative ideas- certain mechanics can predict  each of your social messages success. By social media mechanics, I mean seriously knowing: What message type (text, image, link, or video) gets the most engagement for every network? How many characters should your social media message be for every network? How many hashtags should you include in your message for every network? How many emojis should there be in your message for every network? What  emotional sentiment works best for every network? ^^^ If you knew the answers to those questions for every network and subsequently optimized every social media message you write for every network you would get more engagement for every network. So wouldnt it be nice if there were a free tool to help you do just that?  Ã°Å¸Ëœâ€° Introducing: The Social Message  Optimizer From Go ahead: Use the Social Message  Optimizer now! You don't need to read this blog post to write better social media messages. Just use the Social Message  Optimizer, follow the prompts, and shoot for a score of 80 or higher. Go on. You seriously don't need to read this blog post. You can come back and read this. But you really don't have to.  Ã°Å¸Ëœ ¬ 1,488 messages are optimized through  this puppy EVERY DAY. (That's 44,636 per month, for the mathematically inclined.) So  if you're not using it, you're already 1,500 messages behind.  Just sayin'... Just ask our friend Jay Baer, president of  Convince Convert, if he thinks it works: New tool from @- helps you write better #socialmedia messages. Check it out here: https://t.co/FZuZTSgty2 pic.twitter.com/VxXLYArtz1 - Jay Baer (@jaybaer) May 6, 2017 You're still reading, but you seriously  should just go use that tool instead. The tool is  way more fun. Trust me... Or trust Christin Kardos what she thinks (if you still think I'm a little sketchy). Fun, helpful #tool alert! Write Better Social Messages w/ #SocialMedia Message Optimizer From @https://t.co/5ZTiaX8GIU #smm pic.twitter.com/sj8vNxtnsi - Christin Kardos (@ChristinKardos) May 3, 2017 Alright. Read on then. I recently analyzed the most engaging  social media messages from a sample  of 6,399,322 messages posted  through 's database. For those who may be  unfamiliar, is the #1 best-selling social media + marketing management calendar in the world with 15,000+ customers in more than 100 countries. Coupled with 's custom, proprietary, and never-before-seen data, I've also  researched every study I could find around the web on the topic of writing social media posts (specifically about the mechanics): HubSpot's character count guide Buffer's  how many hashtags blog post Buffer's optimal length infographic Jeff Bullas' Facebook fan engagement tips Fast Company's ideal tweet and Facebook post length article TrackSocial's tweet length blog post Sprout Social's Instagram hashtags blog post Super Spicy Media's Instagram hashtags blog post Max Woolf's Instagram hashtags case study Copyblogger's art of writing great Google+ posts blog post Marvin Williams' Instagram tagging deck 's brand new research into the most engaging social media messages from a sample of  6,399,322 from a diverse range of industries (think real estate to software to fitness companies to department stores) At times, these studies  differed from  the nearly 6.4 million data-driven results  that fuel the  Social Message  Optimizer. Several  reference what appear to be the same data sets over and over, rarely adding new commentary to the conversation. So in this blog post, you are going  to learn... The message type that gets the most engagement for each social network. How long your message should be for every social network. How many hashtags to include in your message for each social network. How many emojis tend to get the most engagement on every social network. The emotional sentiment (positive or negative?) that performs best on every social network (spoiler alert: Think positive thoughts). ...and all of it is backed by  6,399,322 reasons to take this advice very seriously.  Ã°Å¸â„¢Å' Solid Content Solid Mechanics Solid content trumps solid mechanics. That said, this blog post is all about the mechanics. Read this to write better social media content. Once you master social media writing, then worry about the mechanics. I suggest thinking about this like skill acquisition: Start by brainstorming engaging  messages. Hone your  core skill behind writing well. Master writing for each social network with the Social Media Optimizer. Think of it like this: In addition to writing solid messages,  there are several other optimization layers  to hone in your skill set  that will impact your success: Social media visuals: Download the free Photoshop CC file in this post to design  perfectly sized images for each of the networks (and you'll get 84 free images, too). Best times to post: It makes sense to share when  your followers are most active on each network. Use the free Google Analytics Custom Reports to know when your audience is most active. How often to post: Are you sharing too little or too much?  Download this infographic to post the perfect amount for each network every day. ^^^ I'm sure you can think of a dozen more things that may impact your social media engagement. But for now, in this blog post, you are only going to learn about the message mechanics that fuel what Susan Gilbert calls the "#1 Social Message Optimizer."  Ã°Å¸Ëœ  Check out the "#1 Social Message Optimizer" by @: https://t.co/bY0sRUClIl #smm #marketing - Susan Gilbert (@SusanGilbert) May 2, 2017 Let's do this. How To Write For Facebook The  best Facebook message  is a link post that is 111 characters long, contains zero hashtags, has one emoji, and shares a  positive message. Use the following  information to optimize your own Facebook posts as you write them: Message Type Best: Link Good: Image OK: Text Character Count Best: 111 Good: 119 OK: 40 Hashtag Count Best: 0 Emoji Count Best: 1 Ok: 0 Writing for Facebook? Get the most engagement with links, 111 characters, 0 hashtags, 1 emoji,...How To Write For Twitter The best tweets are image posts that are 103 characters long, contain two hashtags, include one emoji, and are positive sentiment. Optimize your tweets with the mechanics best practices  to increase your engagement: Message Type Best: Image Good: Text OK: Link Character Count Best: 103 Good: 113 OK: 93 Hashtag Count Best: 2 Ok: 1 Emoji Count Best: 1 Ok: 0 The best tweets = image + 103 characters  + 2 hashtags  + 2 emojis  + positivity.How To Write For Instagram The best Instagram messages are image posts that are 241 characters long, contain 11 hashtags, have three emojis, and are positive sentiment. Boost your engagement by optimizing your Instagram messages according  to  the these mechanics best practices: Message Type Best: Image Good: Video Character Count Best: 241 Good: 200 OK: 224 Hashtag Count Best: 11 Good: 5 OK: 10 Emoji Count Best: 3 Good: 2 Ok: 1 Get the most engagement on Instagram with image, 241 characters, 11 hashtags, 3 emojis, positivity.How To Write For Pinterest The best Pins are image posts that are 215 characters long, contain zero hashtags, include zero emojis, and show positive sentiment. Optimize your Pins to get the most engagement by following these best practices for mechanics: Message Type Best: Image Good: Link Character Count Best: 215 Good: 148 OK: 141 Hashtag Count Best: 0 Emoji Count Best: 0 The best Pins have  an image, 215 characters, 0 hashtags, 0 emojis, positive sentiment.How To Write For LinkedIn The best LinkedIn messages are link posts that are 149 characters long, demonstrate positive sentiment, and contain no hashtags or emojis. Optimize your LinkedIn messages by following  these mechanics best practices: Message Type Best: Link Good: Text OK: Image Character Count Best: 149 Good: 125 OK: 95 Hashtag Count Best: 0 Emoji Count Best: 0 Get the most engagement on LinkedIn: Link, 149 characters, 0 hashtags, 0 emojis, positive sentiment.How To Write For Google+ The best Google+ messages are link posts that are 65 characters long, contain three hashtags, include one emoji, and show signs of positive sentiment. Optimize your Google+ message according to these best practices for mechanics to get the most engagement: Message Type Best: Link Good: Image OK: Text Character Count Best: 65 Good: 60 OK: 502 Hashtag Count Best: 3 Good: 2 OK: 1 Emoji Count Best: 1 Ok: 0 The best Google+ messages? Link, 65 characters, 3 hashtags, 1 emoji, positivity.The Breakdown: What To Do Now? The ideal message type and character count for each network are pretty obvious. However, you may want some help  finding emojis and hashtags  to optimize certain shares. Because when you bring the details  together right, you can be a high-scorer like tech keynote speaker Brian Fanzo: I got a 79 on the Social Media Optimizer via @! https://t.co/QRa7i7GFV7 - Brian Fanzo 😎 (@iSocialFanz) May 2, 2017 Nice work, Brian  Ã°Å¸â€˜Å  Now, let's explore. Where To Find Hashtags? Here are a few tools you can use to find trending or popular hashtags: What The Trend helps you explore the top hashtags from the past month. Twitonomy helps you see hashtags similar to the content you tend to  check out on Twitter. RiteTag  gives you feedback on hashtags as you type them. Hashtagify helps you find existing popular hashtags. If you'd like to learn  more about how to use hashtags effectively, read this ultimate hashtag guide. You'll also discover how to find hashtags on every network that supports them to get a better feel of how to write great messages for each network. Where To Find Emojis? There are a handful of ways to include emojis the messages you're creating with the Social Message  Optimizer: On your Mac, press Control, Command, and Space Bar at the same time. You'll see an emoji menu where you just need to hit an emoji and it'll populate where your cursor is. 😉 On Windows 8 or 10, hit the keyboard icon in the lower-right corner of your taskbar to activate the Touch Keyword. Then click the smiley face icon to change the keyboard to an emoji keyboard. Just like on Mac, when you hit an emoji, it will enter where your cursor is. Otherwise, simply bookmark GetEmoji, then copy and paste emoji art from the website into your social media message. Now You Know How To Optimize Your Social Media Messages We know you're going to fall in love with the Social Message Optimizer, like Rachel Thompson, did... LOVE LOVE LOVE: If You Love The Headline Analyzer, Just Wait Until You See This! Think #Social Media https://t.co/jw2eqckQ8r via @ - Rachel Thompson (@RachelintheOC) May 20, 2017 But just because you probably want all of this data at your fingertips the next time you're writing messages with the Social Message  Optimizer, here's a handy (downloadable + savable) infographic of everything you just learned: Remember, this blog post is all about the mechanics behind writing  engaging social media messages. Here is some recommended reading to write effective messages beyond the mechanics: This Is How To Write For Social Media To Create The Best Posts The 6 Types Of Social Media Content That Will Give You The Greatest Value How to Boost Engagement on Social Media with Visual Content How To Make The Best Social Media Images The Easy Way (+ 84 Free Images) How To Develop A Winning Social Media Content Strategy (Free Template) Good luck! Remember... the Social Message  Optimizer is FREE! Optimize your social media messages now. 😉 Join these fine marketers in writing the best social media messages the web has ever seen! If You Love The Headline Analyzer, Check Out the Social Message Optimizer https://t.co/A1Fvuw69Fi via @ - Mike Wilton (@mwilton13) May 2, 2017 How To Write For Social Media To Create The Best Posts @is the BEST content blog on the web HANDS DOWN ðŸ™Å' https://t.co/owTvBUVvm8 pic.twitter.com/LaIcvWXaaA - Whale of a Tale 🠐 ³Ã°Å¸ â€¹ (@thewritewhale) May 17, 2017 LOVE the Headline Optimizer. Have you SEEN the Social Message Optimizer! via @@njellering https://t.co/CvOierGFgS - Lisa Shomo (@keenkoncept) May 4, 2017 @OMG...social message optimizer https://t.co/SKXDqFlPSP. ⠝ ¤Ã¯ ¸  - The Rambler (@MRTrambler) May 11, 2017

Professional Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Professional Practice - Essay Example On one bright day, on the New Year eve, the main server crashed. Though we were able to restart the server and line it up for service, the database could not be started. After much trying we decided to restore the backed up data from the earlier date. As luck would have it, the restored data also failed. If we had tried to restore this data it would have been two days work which the client might have had to do, instead if we were to restore the earlier one, we need to restore or reenter almost one week's data which is quite a volume. Taking all this into consideration we tried our best to bring back online the original data without loss of any information. It took almost two days for us to bring back the data and restart the database. This professional issue meant we are possibly missing our New Year celebrations. But for the client, it was down the day before the New Year and it was brought on line the day after the New Year. Literally, there was no down time for them. They were hap py. Professional issues many times are application of mind and common sense coupled with appropriate technical knowledge. May be I should say, 20% technical knowledge and 80% common sense. I have found along with this, there is also another major factor which plays an important role in sorting out professional issues and that is the attitude. The learning attitude and an open mind, both for criticisms, for new ideas and for sharing new thoughts, would all help in solving very many complex issues. Professional issues are welcome since they would bring in challenges that make our work more interesting, in the bargain, educating us and leave us with a sense of achievement at the end. Whereas Ethical issues are not... The researcher of this essay states that running and heading a private business is a challenging job. One, you are responsible for your staff and also for yourself and your family. Two, the customers need to be answered and the commitments made need to be honored including the time lines. As a matter of fact, the staff in your company will expect you to compensate them for the same kind of work. The responsibilities at the office are more profound and finding time to make contributions to forums of interest seems to be a difficult proposition. The researchr of this essay lists down some of the professional issues that he faced during the course of his work with various companies. As Head IT Technician, the researcher was expected to plan for ongoing and regular backups of database in a particular client site. This was done twice every week at an interval of three days every time. The idea was, in case there is any data related issue, the client would be able to roll back to a state t hat was maximum three days prior to the date of the problem. The researcher also planned it in such a way that there will be at least one more backup which will also be maintained. The researcher concluds that this course made a very important point and that is: we may not be able to satisfy every one at every point in time. Professionals need to up hold the highest professional tradition and ethic. The course made the researcher to appreciate these facts of the codes of conduct as well as the ethics and the morals behind these codes.

Financail Management - Risk and Capital Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Financail Management - Risk and Capital - Essay Example Secondly we might have underestimated the growth rate which has a dramatic impact on the price of the stock. The higher the growth rate, the greater the price of the stock will be and it is expected that in the high-tech industry, a company such as IBM holds great expectation and it must have a better growth rate than what we have expected. Therefore by increasing the dividend growth rate and current annual dividend we can get a better estimate from this model. This model underestimates the value of the stock in firms that consistently payout less than they can afford and accumulate cash in process. Changed Market Risk Premium: Required rate of return = 3.40 + 1.64(10) Required Rate of Return = k = 19.8% Constant Growth Model D1= D0 (1+g) D1= 0.80 (1+0.082) = 0.8656 As we have increased the required rate of return, we are assuming a greater risk with the stock which in turn decreases the value of the stock as it can be seen from the above calculations. This also differs drastically f rom the market price due to the reason mentioned above.

Cemex Case Study Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cemex Case Study - Coursework Example In terms of markets, the developing countries of China and India may be seen as some of most important due to large scale cement consumption and production fuelled by large scale economic growth (OECD 2010, 2009). It may be expected that in future years as wealth becomes higher per capita in these markets, that demand begins to fall to levels seen in the developed world. In addition, the nature of products consumed in developing markets also varies from those of the developed world. Here there is a preference for pre-bagged building materials as opposed to bulk delivery, a trend which is reversed in developed markets. 2. In terms of global capacity, Cemex ranks as third with a capacity of 64.7 million tons, this compares to market leader Lafarge’s capacity of 108 million tons and Taiheiyo in sixth place at 37.9 million tons. Despite the capacity of the company, Cemex ranks as number one by market share in 9 of its key 13 markets and second in anther three. As such, Cemexâ€⠄¢s overall capacity lags behind the total demand for the company’s products making the company a global sourcer. ... This however, may be seen as linked to the unique characteristics of such markets which have a propensity to favour local or national producers over the large international players such as Cemex. As such, despite being a global player, Cemex may still be seen as lacking a substantial presence in key regional markets in both Asia and Africa. 3. Overall, it would appear that Cemex after the current round of acquisitions is now a â€Å"broad† player within the market for building products, while the firm had previously focused on cement (Jobber, 2007). Recent acquisitions has seen the company moving into both the aggregates and ready mixed concrete market. With regards to Cemex’s generic strategy, it would appear that the company follows a cost leadership model (Porter, 2004). This can be seen in the so called â€Å"Cemex way† in which on making an acquisition the company attempts to implement a two way process of rationalisation taking the best and most cost effect ive practises from both the parent company and the acquisitioned company and then implementing the most cost effective. There is however, one area in which Cemex may be seen as developing a differentiated strategy. In the market for bagged cements, Cemex was the first producer to developed a â€Å"branded† option, thus making the product more attractive in the lucrative home build market segment. In addition, the company also makes small local changes to the produce based upon customer perceptions of quality. For instance while the Egyptian market shows a preference for darker colours cements, Cemex’s home markets in South America require a lighter coloured product. Despite this attempt to differentiate the product, it would appear that the market as a whole is

Iconic Construction Projects: Issues and Controversies

Iconic Construction Projects: Issues and Controversies Introduction Construction of large, expensive, and prestigious projects is an historical obsession of the human race. Every age of human history, as well as every human civilisation, features huge architectural showpieces (Silverberg, 1965). Religions have used enormous and ornate structures, churches, mosques, and temples, to shock and awe their followers into submission. Many of the ancient and modern seven wonders, e.g., the Coliseum of Rome, the Great Wall of China, or the Taj Mahal, were architectural wonders that were built with massive doses of money, effort, time, and genius (Silverberg, 1965). It took two emperors, ten years, and extensive public taxation to build the Coliseum. The Great Wall was built, over hundreds of years, to protect the Mings against invaders, by generations of architects; who did not foresee that the opening of one of its doors would neutralise centuries of sweat and toil (Silverberg, 1965). The Taj Mahal was built over 16 years with an unlimited budget by an idiosyncratic emperor who failed to connect the irony of amputating the arms of his sculptors (after the erect ion of the Taj) with the building of a monument to the cause of immortal love (Ahmed, 1993). In modern times each of these iconic projects would have been considered to be failures in some aspects, even though they have delivered and continue to deliver numerous benefits. Such awesome projects link humanity over time and distance with common threads of ambition, grandeur, status, and prestige. The construction of the Empire State Building in New York in 1931 set off a race, albeit some four decades later, among other cities, to build something grander and taller, (Cowan, 2007), the title for the tallest building going from skyscraper to tower in different locations until it was grasped in late 2007 by the under construction Burj Dubai, an architectural and construction wonder that will be ready only in 2009. Accepting numerous design modifications and a construction delay of many months, mainly to ensure that their project does not get upstaged in its target of becoming the world’s tallest building, the creators of Burj Dubai are motivated by ambitions that are largely iconic. â€Å"Chairman Mohammed Ali Alabbar said Dubai has resisted the usual and has inspired to build a global icon, ‘it’s a human achievement without equal.†™â€  (Dubai skyscraper worlds tallest, 2008) The urge to undertake iconic construction projects, projects that are commonly associated with size, status, prestige, architectural complexity, and grandeur, is not restricted to the oil rich sheikhdoms of the Middle East, the capitalist bastion of the United States, aggressive young economies like Australia, or the ambitious Asian Tigers. The United Kingdom, long associated with restraint and the virtues of understatement, has its fair share of projects that can be termed iconic; the Millennium Dome, the London Eye, Portsmouth’s Spinnaker Tower, and London’s Wembley Stadium; to name but a few. Iconic projects are usually undertaken with diverse objectives in mind, e.g., raising the profile of a city, creating a tourist attraction, or even increasing the status of a premier football club; they are normally complex in nature and require substantial outlays of money, long construction periods, large tracts of land, sophisticated construction and construction management skills, involvement of political and non-political organisations, agencies and individuals, and numerous administrative, financial, and legal issues (Prasser, 2006). Always in the arc of media attention, their progress receives inordinate publicity; their failures and successes are widely discussed, debated and often roundly criticised. The amount of controversy and censure that invariably attaches itself to most such projects, as well as their patchy records, can well lead people to believe that â€Å"iconic projects are virtually certain to fail†. With such sweeping statements possibly appearing to be somewhat naà ¯ve to serious students of management and construction, (more so in light of the rapid strides made by the construction management industry in recent years, both in terms of technological advances and in terms of utilisation of management processes), this study attempts to investigate the issue, with the aid of relevant current examples and current construction management theory. Commentary and Analysis A meaningful discussion on the italicised topic calls for logical and relevant structuring. This analytical commentary is structured into sequential sections that take up the determination of failure, as applicable to iconic projects, the various environmental, political, economic and managerial factors that can contribute to such failures, and the measures that can be adopted and implemented to lessen the chances of their happening. The concluding section summarises the discussion and contains appropriate recommendations. Determination of Project Failure A project can be defined as a discrete and predetermined endeavour that has specific commencement and conclusion nodes and is undertaken to construct a quantifiable deliverable (Lewis, 2007). Projects can be initiated in many areas of social, economic and business life and can be classified as iconic in terms of their status, importance, glamour, media friendliness and size. With the topic of this discussion being related to construction, the commentary is focussed on iconic projects that involve substantial construction activity, e.g. stadia, buildings, roads, dams, museums, monuments and the like. Large and prestigious projects in areas like IT or brand building, which can also be truly termed to be iconic, do not find place in this study. A project can be termed to be a failure if it does not meet its objectives (Lewis, 2007). With most modern day projects, especially those that are large and complex, having aims and targets, in terms of physical, cost, and time deliverables, and expected to conform to norms of accountability, transparency, and ethics during their execution, such projects can be deemed to be unsatisfactory if they fail to meet such signposts and requirements (Lewis, 2007). Properly set project objectives, in the language of project management, are expected to meet specific SMARTA criteria, i.e., they should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-Framed, and Agreed (Lewis, 2007). Apart from such objectives, iconic projects have broad aims in terms of what they are expected to achieve and the services they are to provide (Prasser, 2006). The Millennium Dome at Greenwich in the outskirts of London, for example, was conceived as a mega project that was planned to be either a football stadium or a huge convention and exhibition centre (and an attractive tourist destination), after the completion of the Millennium Experience in December, 2000 (Maddox, 2000). The structure, which is the largest of its type in the world, whilst proving to be a huge tourist attraction in 2000, proved to be of little use thereafter. Horrendously expensive to maintain, it remained practically unused during the next five years. Most of its adjacent structures were demolished. Renamed O2 in 2005 it has since been transformed into an entertainment district at a cost of 600 million dollars (Millennium Dome, 2008). The Spinnaker Tower at Portsmouth is another example of an iconic project that has come in for widespread criticism. Reflecting Portsmouth’s maritime history and designed to resemble a sail, the tower was completed five years after schedule, incurred expenditures far beyond what was originally forecasted, was executed poorly, developed construction defects and was found to be unfriendly towards disabled visitors (Oates, 2006). The London Wheel, on the other hand, which received lesser visitors than the Millennium Dome in 2000, belied pessimistic forecasts and went on to become a hugely successful tourist attraction, redefining London’s skyline and being featured in every Bollywood movie that was shot in London. Projects to be successful should specifically deliver on the wider planned benefits and services. â€Å"The concept of project benefits is central to project success. A project will be deemed successful if it delivers its promised benefits. What about on time and on budget? These are different questions, relating to how well the project is managed. Important as they are, these are not the focus of a quest to clarify objectives. Besides, in the end we would rather have a successful project a little late and over budget than a beautifully managed disaster which fails to deliver on promises† (Writing Project Objectives, 2008, http://www.numerix.com.au/docs/newsletter-articles/writing-project-objectives.htm). Causes for Project Failure Commercial project management, as a discipline, has enlarged significantly in recent years. Imbibing theories and concepts from various sectors of management theory like strategic, human resource (HR), financial, general and environmental management, its evolution has been helped by the progressive sophistication of project management, decision making, monitoring and control techniques (like PERT (Project Evaluation and Review Techniques), CPM (Critical Path Method), Gantt Charts, and Fishbone diagrams) (Richman, 2002). With construction having progressively become one of the biggest business activities in the world, the use of sophisticated management practices, which otherwise originated and were developed in other business sectors like automobile and steel production, is but normal (Richman, 2002). The fact that project construction, especially on the scale of what is being attempted in the modern day, is an extremely complex process that involves political decision making, activist involvement, environmental repercussions, land acquisition, financial organisation, use of sophisticated technology and complex machinery, diverse human skills, and the involvement of numerous agencies, contractors, and subcontractors, results in the emergence of numerous variables, which, individually, and in tandem with others, can lead to partial or complete failure in achievement of project objectives (Richman, 2002). Despite the existence of numerous related and independent factors that can effectively hinder the success of projects, management experts feel it advisable to group and analyse these variables under specific categories. Again, whilst project management experts and project consulting organisations by and large appear to have their own interpretation of reasons behind failures of large and prestigious projects, they are united on some major causal factors. Problems in Project Initiation The most important of these causal factors arise during the initiation of the project, a process that in the case of iconic projects is likely to include issues of political governance, harmonisation of expectations of different stakeholders, environmental requirements, cost estimation, organisation of finances, selection of management team, and crystallisation of broad project objectives, benefits, and services, as well as its SMARTA criteria (Lewis, 2007). Ambiguity about any of these factors, especially at the initiation stage can lead to the perpetuation of uncertainties in objectives, as the project progresses, and inadequate or inappropriate managerial inputs at later times (Lewis, 2007). Large projects, more often those that are public in nature, or involve public private participation, need clarity in political approach, inter-departmental involvement, and decision making; the lack of which can lead to continuing snags in project implementation. The Millennium Dome, projected as the most celebrated iconic project of the beginning of the Millennium, went over budget by more than 200 million GBP and lay idle for five years after 2000 (Millennium Dome, 2008). It was mired in political and public controversy regarding its cost, design, and content right from project inception; developments that definitely contributed to unsteadiness in its management and leadership and uncertainty in its execution. Whilst the initiation stage of the project in matters of time is often much shorter than the actual time required for its completion, it is critical for satisfactory project outcomes, because of its key processes, (all of which involve high level decision making skills), namely (a) crystallisation of project benefits (b) agreement on project implementation at governing levels, (c) fleshing out of project dimensions and project design, (d) arrangement of finance, and (e) selection of management team (Lewis, 2007). Although commercial project management does borrow many managerial and control techniques from regular management theory and practice, its finite and bounded nature poses significantly different and multifaceted challenges, especially those that arise from the need to make route corrections, if and when such need arises (Hannigan Browne, 2000). Whilst such route corrections are part and parcel of regular management projects, their occurrences in construction projects invariably lead to disruption of time, cost, and completion targets; thus the need for careful project initiation. A project well begun often leads to far easier meeting of project objectives (Hannigan Browne, 2000). The costs of the project, its construction and finance requirements, and time frame, ultimately depend upon project design, the excellence of which has a significant effect on its final success. The design for the Millennium stadium at Cardiff had to take account of variables like the proximity of the river Taff, the issue of tidal flooding and the demolition of a number of buildings with consequent compensation and relocation costs (Lowe, 2008). Mishandling of these issues could well have fatally jeopardised the outcome of this project. Project design is also inextricably linked to the land needed for the project. With land for prestigious projects invariably being substantial, and more often than not in populated areas, land acquisition is a complex exercise with political, environmental, social, and economic aspects that need to be addressed separately and competently. The Tatas, recent acquirers of Corus Steel and Jaguar Landrover, are in the process of constructing their factory for the world’s cheapest car, the 2200 USD Nano, in India. In many ways the group’s most celebrated and iconic project, the original Nano site near Kolkata in East India had to be abandoned after a year’s work and more than 100 million US dollars in expenses, after protests from local landowners, (who did not agree with the land acquisition price negotiated by the concerned state government), led to riots and violence (Misery Is the Price Farmers Must Pay for â€Å"People’s Car†, 2008). The project, whi ch has been resumed in a totally different location, is now substantially behind, both in terms of costs and time, and only the future will tell whether the Tatas will be able to keep their price commitment. Provisioning of finance, its estimation, its sources, and its arrangement form another crucial component of project initiation activities. Project financing, especially in public private partnerships is a complex process, with different sources of finance carrying different cost and repayment commitments. Whilst the Millennium Commission projects were by and large funded by the national lottery, most projects are not so lucky and need to be funded adequately to ensure against work delays on account of financial inadequacy. The Spinnaker Tower, the showpiece of Portsmouth Harbour, suffered from underestimation of cost as well as under-arrangement of finances, leading to an overrun of 36 million GBP and the need to use taxpayers’ money, an avenue that was specifically not considered at the time of the project decision (Oates, 2006). With financial inadequacy likely to arise both from poor financial management and from wrong cost estimation, it is important to get the financials right before the start of a complex and expensive project. Activities like the estimation of finance and the coordination of design activity are the responsibility of the commercial management team of the project, the selection of which, along with that of the commercial manager, is critical to project success. Subject to the necessary provisioning of required inputs from the project owners, the functioning of the commercial management team assumes enormous responsibility for successful project execution. Commercial Management Commercial management of projects is a complex and multifaceted discipline requiring numerous managerial skills and inputs. The execution of large projects is possibly among the most challenging of modern day management tasks, an area of work that is distinguished by two main features, first the sheer number of variables that need to be controlled and issues that need to be attended, and second the minimal scope for wrong decisions or operational blunders (Frame, 2002). The commercial management function is underpinned on theory that is drawn from diverse disciplines like social sciences, management, economics, law, accountancy and finance, in addition of course to project management and supply chain management (Lowe, 2008a). Commercial managers of construction projects have extensive responsibilities that commence from the time of initiation and need to be appointed as soon as a final decision on project implementation is taken (Frame, 2002). Whilst commercial managers are not involved in much of the initial decision making that concern areas of political governance, environmental and ecological issues and sourcing of avenues of finance, their involvement at this stage can be rewarding because of their managerial expertise and their previous experience (Frame, 2002). Commercial managers are more often than not senior practicing managers with significant project experience and are expected to be competent in areas of technical and financial knowledge, budgeting, forecasting and monitoring, law, human resource management, supplier chain management and above all leadership and general management. They need to be selected with the utmost of care as much of the proper execution of projects depends upon their knowledge and competence. Whilst they are generally provided with adequate support in both line and staff functions, their own knowledge of finance management, HR management, supplier chain management and project management is under constant challenge and test; successful project progression depends significantly upon their own interpretation of cash flows and assessment of contractors and subcontractors for project jobs. With the overwhelming majority of project work being carried out by contractors who are chosen for and assigned specific jobs, the most important constraint and critical variable in successful project execution arises from the need to appoint, instruct, monitor and control them (Lowe, 2008a). Unlike regular business organisations, where the bulk of the work is handled by company employees, the majority of project work is undertaken by external contractors who are supervised by project managers with the help of support staff and project accountants, a phenomenon that leads to the emergence of numerous uncertainties and project risks. Much of the delay in the construction of the Wembley stadium, which was finally opened in 2007, more than a year after schedule, can be related to unsatisfactory working of Multiplex, the main contractor (Lowe, 2008a). Contractors are used for every conceivable function and service, from providing designing and architectural services to erection, masonry, electrical work, provisioning of machinery and vehicles, and secretarial and canteen services. A comparison of the nature of project work with that of the currently growing trend of outsourcing in routine business operations is apt. Outsourcing, a process by which internal operations of the company, is handed over to outsiders in return of cost and efficiency advantages, can make a company vulnerable to external factors and is handled by most organisations with utmost circumspection and care. It is used only for repetitive and low skills work and the credentials of service providers are literally tested with fire before they are engaged. The complexities associated with running a company where practically every activity is outsourced can be realistically compared with the challenges faced by commercial managers of large, iconic, projects. Whilst appointing contractors it is essential to gauge their competence and ability for fulfilling proposed responsibilities by assessing their size, competence, availability, financial position, and readiness to work (Frame, 2002). Although such contractors are routinely appointed in Asian countries on the basis of their closeness to and intimacy with the commercial management team (leading to informal and trust based client-contractor relationships), such relationships in Anglo American environments are governed by detailed contracts, and most commercial managers use sophisticated legal help to draw out elaborate agreements with their contractors (Frame, 2002). It needs to be mentioned here that few of the contractors who are engaged in large projects represent small one man organisations. Most of them are medium sized or even large, (where the requirement is substantial, involves the use of expensive machinery or large numbers of people), organisations employing thousands of peopl e. Some are joint stock or privately held companies, and many operate a number of projects simultaneously. In many cases main contractors engage sub-contractors to carry out different jobs that fall under their area of responsibility. Apart from contractual obligations, contractors are controlled by regular monitoring, quality checks, and financial incentives and penalties. Despite the use of legal and managerial methods for progressing work, advancement of project activity in line with forecasts and schedules are often affected adversely due to a number of operational reasons. Commercial mismanagement of projects occurs, in the opinion of experts mainly because of (a) lack of commercial and project management skills with the implementing management (b) inability to assess and control risks (c) lack of attention to breaking development and implementation into manageable and discrete steps, (d) lack of understanding and contact with the supply industry at senior levels and (e) lack of effective project team integration between the commercial management team, the subcontractors, and other participants of the supply chain (Frame, 2003). Experts are also quite clear in arguing that many of the problems that arise in p roject management occur because of overworked commercial managers. Project owners rarely understand the extent of detailed and complex work that is natural to commercial management of projects, a phenomenon that leads to unsustainable loads on executives and to consequential errors and delays (Frame, 2003). Failure of Iconic Projects Project execution is essentially a complex exercise and is affected by the inter-play of a host of variables, many of which arise from issues and developments that are not under the direct control of the project execution team. Project delays and cost overruns, are common to both the private and public sector, and continue to happen despite the increasing sophistication of project and commercial management techniques and methods. Project failure in the IT industry, for example, is an unhealthy 85 %! â€Å"Research highlights that only one in eight information technology projects can be considered truly successful (failure being described as those projects that do not meet the original time, cost and (quality) requirements criteria† (McManus and Wood Harper, 2008) The situation becomes even more complex in case of iconic projects. Such projects in the public or public-private domain arise because of a continuing historical obsession of decision makers with size and grandeur and often occur at the expense of more essential infrastructural projects like roads, hospitals, power and public transport. With the origins of such projects often mired in controversy and public disapproval, their approval leads to difficulties in balancing of public budgets and slashing of other required expenditure; the stated benefits of such projects often have to be related to the reduction of benefits from other areas that need to be cannibalised. Iconic projects, all over the world, irrespective of their location in the UK, Australia or the United States involve enormous costs and stress on size as a feature rather than as a requirement. They extol form over function and their benefits are more symbolic than measurable. Often large scale in nature they are taken up for boosting economic or tourism activity, (Millennium Dome), hosting huge sporting events, (Beijing and London Olympics), lifting regional prestige (The Millennium Stadium at Cardiff and Spinnaker Tower at Portsmouth), and symbolising governmental achievement (the magnificent Parliament House at Canberra). The Beijing Olympics led to an enormous demand for global steel and the intensification of a commodity super cycle, a phenomenon that now lies buried under the debris of the sub prime crisis. The London Olympics are similarly expected to generate 60,000 person years of employment during construction. With decisions for undertaking such projects often being founded on peripheral considerations, they are subject to excessive political interference, have unclear and ill defined objectives, over optimistic considerations, and inflated viability. More often than not they are driven by considerations of supply rather than demand and suffer from the â€Å"Build it and they will come† syndrome (Fenn, 2002). It is difficult to assess today whether the huge infrastructure that has been created at Beijing or is being created at London will be utilised in future after the dust of the three week Olympic spectacle subsides. With England in the middle of a severe economic crisis, the pound losing against all world currencies, and unemployment expected to rise, the justification of continuing with such massive expenditure at the cost of economic measures that could help overcome the recession appears to be difficult. Critics also associate iconic projects with poor governance, symbolised by secrecy, lack of transparency, minimisation of risk assessment, fudging of budgets, and political expediency. The Federation Square project at Melbourne had major icon implications. It had high profile and high visibility during construction and a complex architectural design. The haste shown in its construction led to construction activity moving ahead of detailed design work and its lack of transparency was revealed in the cost overrun of more than 350 million when it was inaugurated in 2002, two years behind the opening deadline and in a still incomplete state (Prasser, 2006). The project was affected by cost variations, trade disruption and contractor delay claims, increases in contracting costs, extra project costs, hidden design changes, and post completion changes (Prasser, 2006). Whilst examples of poorly executed iconic projects are not difficult to find, tarring all top drawer projects with the same critical brush appears to be cynical; there also being projects that have been handled and executed with utmost transparency and brilliance. Arsenal’s Emirates Stadium at Islington, completed in 2006, is an example of brilliant project visualisation and construction. Awarded the Building Project of the Year at the Annual Building Awards, the judges described it thus: â€Å"The whole process was an example of how important teamwork should be to a project, with everyone from the client to the contractor and subcontractors coming together and working successfully to ensure the project was completed on time and under budget. The way that this team tackled design changes should be a lesson to the industry† (Lowe, D, 2008, 21). Conclusion Much of the perceptions associated with the â€Å"failure† of large â€Å"iconic† projects arise out of their being over budget and behind schedule. The execution of such projects is in common perception also associated with poor risk management, bureaucratic thinking, and poor project execution. Whilst a number of big ticket projects have been rightly criticised for their failure in meeting of project objectives and underdelivery of promised benefits, the basic issue about viability of iconic projects is prone to becoming clouded by media publicity and public debate. Project conception and management are by themselves extremely complex tasks and it is not difficult to understand the reasons behind their execution problems. The private sector also witnesses numerous incidences of project failure, a fact that possibly does not come to light because of the shroud of confidentiality that covers much of private sector working. Successful project execution involves two discrete and distinct components, first, the conception and visualisation of and the decision to undertake a project and second, its actual physical execution and completion. The actual progression of a project is largely carried out by experienced professionals with the aid of experienced contractors and it would be nothing short of uncharitable to lay the blame for unsatisfactory project execution to the inferior project management skills of managers of iconic projects. Brilliantly executed iconic projects like the Emirates Stadium at Islington confirm that large and top drawer projects can indeed be successfully completed. Iconic projects, especially those that occur in the public space, are usually visualised by political leaders, who, whilst capable of feeling the public pulse and conceptualising ambitious and extravagant plans are not fundamentally strong in commercially complex areas of project management. Being impatient doers they tend to rush through the initiation stages of such projects without paying detailed attention to the greater practical ramifications of project execution, thus building in inherent weaknesses that lead to difficulties later. Iconic projects have a far greater chance of being successfully executed if such errors can be minimised by more transparent and participative working in the initial stages without sacrificing the project’s grand vision. The widely publicised aims and benefits of iconic projects are essentially subjective and their assessment in terms of right or wrong is beyond the scope of this commentary. Being public and long term decisions their benefits are judged more by posterity than by current applause or criticism and on many occasions assume dimensions that make issues like cost and time overruns trivial matters of detail and quibble. The public perception of success of iconic projects could however improve radically if their initiation and execution were tackled with clarity, conservatism and attention to detail. The responsibility for this lies essentially with the project owners, the people who conceptualise and decide upon the project, than on anybody else. Word Count: 4691 References Ahmed, A. S. (1993, May). The Taj Mahal, History Today, 43, 62+ Ali, M. M., Moon, K. S. (2007), Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Architectural Science Review, 50(3), 205+ Boss Stuck in Lift as Tower Opens. (2005, October 18). The Evening Standard (London, England), p. 9

Frederick Douglass Essay -- Biography

Frederick Douglass's Propaganda Behind the Narrative Frederick Douglass, a firm believer in equality, was one of the most influential leaders of the abolitionist movement in America. An ex-slave, Douglass pushed for abolition and brought attention to the subject through his commanding speeches and his powerful writings. Among his writings Douglass published his autobiography "Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave" , which is indeed one of his more famous pieces of work. Although seen as a simple autobiography of his life, the narrative includes a strong abolitionist message that would aim to change the northern audience's view on southern slaveholders. Douglass knew changing the north's view on the subject would create an anti=slavery majority, and with that bring abolition even closer. Douglass used his life story as a disguised propaganda device to promote and drive the abolition movement among northerners. Before Douglass begins his life story , the preface written by Wm. Lloyd Garrison, prepares the reader for the abolitionist message that is really behind Douglass's Narrative. The preface focuses on Garrison's admiration for Douglass and his cause. He describes hearing Douglass speak for the first time and states "I think I never hated so intensely as at that moment..."(2065). Garrison also demonstrates how persuading and devoted to abolition Douglass is by writing "..if Mr. Douglass could be persuaded to consecrate his time and talents to the promotion of the anti-slavery enterprise, a powerful impetus would be given to it, and a stunning blow..inflicted on northern prejudice against a colored complexion."(2066). To further establish the abolition message within the text, Garrison asks ... ..., being separated from his mother, how the slaves were treated like animals, and the brutal punishments and killings without justice. Douglass also expected to place a black mark on southern slave holders by telling us how they had affairs with the slaves and used religion as support for their actions. Using his narrative as a mask for his propaganda message, Frederick Douglass worked to make his northern audience feel distanced, and feel great anger towards the southern slave owners. The themes he used as propaganda: family, foul treatment, cruel punishment, and the false use of religion, were all subjects that northerners held to their heart. Douglass understood this and realized if he demonstrated how the slave owners were contradicting those beloved values, he could make a great impact and recruit a large support for the abolition movement.

The Definition of White Collar Crime

In this paper the exciting criminal phenomenon known as white-collar crime will be discussed. Corporate Crime and Computer Crime will be discussed in detail. Crime preventative agencies such as the NCPC (National Crime Prevention Council) will also be researched. The late Professor Edwin Sutherland coined the term white-collar crime about 1941. Sutherland defined white-collar crime as â€Å"a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation† (Siegel 337) White-collar crime includes, by way of example, such acts as promulgating false or misleading advertising, illegal exploitation of employees, mislabeling of goods, violation of weights and measures statutes, conspiring to fix prices, evading corporate taxes, computer crimes, and so on. White-collar crime is most distinctively defined in terms of attitudes toward those who commit it. These crimes are punishable by law, however it is generally regarded by the courts and by sections of the general public as much less reprehensible than crimes usually punished by the courts. The other types of crime are blue-collar offenses, which are predominately crimes of the under-privileged. White-collar crimes are punished far less harshly than blue-collar crimes, which shows societies attitudes towards the two sections of society. White-collar crime is attractive to criminals because it brings material rewards with little or no loss of status. (Taft & England 201) For some, white-collar crime is not viewed as a â€Å"crime† at all, because of its non-violent nature. Violent crime has an immediate and observable impact on its victim which raises the ire of the public, whereas white-collar crime frequently goes undetected or is viewed as a bending of the rules. Yet white-collar crime can create the greater havoc. The victim of an assault will recover; however, the impact of a fraud can last a lifetime. This is especially true when the elderly are victimized, as they have little or no hope of re-establishing themselves in financial terms. Contrary to the popular belief, white-collar criminals are thieves and the methods used to conceal their offenses are both artful and ingenious. Concealment of the crime is always an objective of the offender, and it becomes an element of the crime itself. Because it is an artful form of deceit, which is skillfully disguised, the investigation itself is often long and laborious as far as proving criminal intent is concerned. The offence itself may be disguised in a maze of legitimate transactions, which are quite proper if viewed in isolation; however, the cumulative effect is the commission of a criminal offence. From the standpoint of the criminal, the ideal white- collar crime is one that will never be recognized or detected as a criminal act. Corporate crime is the type of crime that is engaged in by individuals and groups of individuals who become involved in criminal conspiracies designed to improve the market share or profitability of their corporations. ( Siegel 338) Corporations are legal entities, which can be and are subjected to criminal processes. There is today little restriction on the range of crimes for which corporations may be held responsible, though a corporation cannot be imprisoned. The most controversial issue in regard to the study of corporate crime revolves around the question of whether corporate crime is â€Å"really crime. † Corporate officials, politicians, and many criminologists object to the criminological study of corporate criminality on the strictest sense of the word. The conventional and strictly legal definition of crime is that it is an act, which violates the criminal law and is thereby punishable by a criminal court. From this perspective a criminal is one who has been convicted in a criminal court. Given these widely accepted notions of crime and criminals, it is argued that what is called corporate crime is not really crime and should not be considered as such by either the public or criminologists. (Hochstedler 22) It does appear that now in recent times society has had a growing concern about white-collar and corporate crime. Studies have indicated that the public now judges white-collar criminality to be more serious than it had been in the past, people now have lost confidence in the people running major companies, and most American corporate executives are believed to be dishonest. The public's concern with corporate crime has grown recently, but has been evident for several years. I will use one of the most memorable corporate crime cases in history; The Ford Pinto Case to prove my statement. (Cullen/Maakestad/Cavender 43) The product liability lawsuit and appeal titled Grimshaw v. Ford Motor Company is a case in point and ought to be read by everyone. Grimshaw is an example of the type of thing that can happen when an industry insolates itself from competition. The Pinto affair has very important lessons for us all. Its story can teach us much about the power of huge corporations and what corporations can do when they face no real competition. It carries an important lesson about how the minds of those who run the world's colossal corporations work. In November of 1971 the Grays purchased a new 1972 Pinto hatchback manufactured by Ford in October of 1971. The Grays had trouble with the car from the outset. During the first few months of ownership, they had to return the car to the dealer for repairs a number of times. Their car problems included excessive gas and oil consumption, down shifting of the automatic transmission, lack of power, and occasional stalling. It was later learned that the stalling and excessive fuel consumption were caused by a heavy carburetor float. On May 28, Mrs. Gray, accompanied by 13-year-old Richard Grimshaw, set out in the Pinto from Anaheim for Barstow to meet Mr. Gray. The Pinto was then six months old and had been driven approximately 3,000 miles. Mrs. Gray stopped in San Bernardino for gasoline, got back onto the freeway (Interstate 15) and proceeded toward her destination at 60 – 65 miles per hour. As she approached the Route 30 off-ramp where traffic was congested, she moved from the outer fast lane to the middle lane of the freeway. Shortly after this lane change, the Pinto suddenly stalled and coasted to a halt in the middle lane. It was later established that the carburetor float had become so saturated with gasoline that it suddenly sank, opening the float chamber and causing the engine to flood and stall. A car traveling immediately behind the Pinto was able to swerve and pass it but the driver of a 1962 Ford Galaxie was unable to avoid colliding with the Pinto. The Galaxie had been traveling from 50 to 55 miles per hour but before the impact had been braked to a speed of 28 to 37 miles per hour. At the moment of impact, the Pinto caught fire and its interior was engulfed in flames. According to the plaintiff's expert, the impact of the Galaxie had driven the Pinto's gas tank forward and caused it to be punctured by the flange or one of the bolts on the differential housing so that fuel sprayed from the punctured tank and entered the passenger compartment through gaps resulting from the separation of the rear wheel well sections from the floor pan. By the time the Pinto came to rest after the collision, both occupants had sustained serious burns. When they emerged from the vehicle, their clothing was almost completely burned off. Mrs. Gray died a few days later of congestive heart failure as a result of the burns. Grimshaw managed to survive but only through heroic medical measures. He has undergone numerous and extensive surgeries and skin grafts and was expected to have to undergo additional surgeries over the next 10 years. He lost portions of several fingers on his left hand and portions of his left ear, hile his face required many skin grafts from various portions of his body. This graphic account of these events is needed to grasp the full impact of this tragic situation which could have been avoided by Ford for very minimal cost. Each Pinto could have been repaired for $4-$8 a piece. Management knew of these defects but still decided to produce and release the Pinto to the public. The idea for the Pinto, as has been noted, was conceived by Mr. Iacocco [sic], the Executive Vice President of Ford. The feasibility study was conducted under the supervision of Mr. Robert Alexander, Vice President of Car Engineering. Ford's Product Planning Committee, whose members included Mr. Iacocca, Mr. Robert Alexander, and Mr. Harold MacDonald, Ford's Group Vice President of Car Engineering, approved the Pinto's concept and made the decision to go forward with the project. Harley Copp, a former Ford engineer and executive in charge of the crash testing program, testified that the highest level of Ford's management made the decision to go forward with the production of the Pinto, knowing that the gas tank was vulnerable to uncture at low rear impact speeds creating a significant risk of death or injury from fire and knowing that fixes were feasible at nominal cost. He testified that management's decision was based on the cost savings, which would inure from omitting the fixes. This was the corporation's outright trade of human life for profit. The jury in this case brought in a verdict for the plaintiffs in excess of $128 million of which $125 million were punitive damages. There is another very important point to be made by this case. Ford knew that the Pinto was going to kill or burn people because of its design, but, because of the â€Å"cost savings which would inure from omitting the fixes,† Ford decided to let it go. Consider carefully exactly what Ford Motor Company was doing here. One could argue that Ford was conducting cost-benefit analysis. To the Ford executives, the benefits were clear, calculable, and immediately available. Ford would save a few dollars on each Pinto manufactured. The costs would accrue in the future and would not be paid by Ford. Unfortunately, the costs were the lives and permanent injuries of nameless and faceless future consumers. The Pinto would appear to be a prime example of laying off costs. The suffering, the destroyed lives and families apparently were of minor consideration in the calculations when Ford performed the cost-benefit analysis. Corporate crime has also been linked to political leaders in this country. Corporate crime is a crime of power and profit for the offenders. Large and powerful corporations who have the support of prominent political leaders can be difficult to prosecute in corporate crime cases. At the Progress & Freedom Foundation conference held at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D. C. , Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich (R-Georgia) was asked why he spent so much time addressing the issue of street crime and violence, while ignoring the issue of corporate crime and violence. Gingrich answered, â€Å"If I went around the country and said, ‘Vote for us and there will be no more white-collar fraud,' the average voter will say, ‘I don't think he gets it. ‘† But corporate crime is more than just white-collar fraud. And one reason that Gingrich doesn't address the issue of corporate crime might be because one of the corporations that has brought him to power is Southwire Co. of Carrollton, Georgia. Southwire has close ties to Gingrich, it dominates the political economy of Carroll County, where Gingrich's political career was launched, and it is a corporation with a criminal record. Individuals affiliated with Southwire Co. , including its chief executive officer, Roy Richards, and its president, James Richards, have donated more than $18,000 to Gingrich's campaigns for Congress during the past ten years. According to the Los Angeles Times, James Richards has also donated 80,200 to GOPAC, the political action committee spearhearded by Gingrich. Computer technology has introduced new factors concerning the types of perpetrators, the forms of assets threatened, and embezzlement methods. ( Radzinowicz 357) Computer crimes generally fall into five categories: 1) theft of services 2) use of computer data for personal gain 3) unauthorized use of computers employed for various types of financial processing 4) property theft by computer 5) placing viruses to destroy data. The terms â€Å"computer misuse† and â€Å"computer abuse† are also used frequently, but they have significantly different implications. Criminal law recognizes the concepts of unlawful or fraudulent intent and of claim of right; thus, any criminal laws that relate to computer crime would need to distinguish between accidental misuse of a computer system, negligent misuse of a computer system and intended, unauthorized access to or misuse of a computer system, amounting to computer abuse. Annoying behavior must be distinguished from criminal behavior in law. History has shown that a broad range of persons commits computer crime: students, amateurs, terrorists and members of organized crime groups. What distinguishes them is the nature of the crime committed. The individual who accesses a computer system without further criminal intent is much different from the employee of a financial institution who skims funds from customer accounts. The typical skill level of the computer criminal is a topic of controversy. Some claim that skill level is not an indicator of a computer criminal, while others claim that potential computer criminals are bright, eager, highly motivated subjects willing to accept a technological challenge, characteristics that are also highly desirable in an employee in the data-processing field. According to a number of studies, however, employees represent the largest threat, and indeed computer crime has often been referred to as an insider crime. One study estimated that 90 per cent of economic computer crimes were committed by mployees of the victimized companies. A recent survey in North America and Europe indicated that 73 per cent of the risk to computer security was attributable to internal sources and only 23 per cent to external criminal activity. The American Bar Association conducted a survey in 1987: of 300 corporations and government agencies, 72 claimed to have been the victim of computer-related crime in the 12-month period prior to the survey, sustaining losses estimated to range from $ 145 million to $ 730 million. In 1991, a survey of security incidents involving computer-related crime was conducted at 3,000 Virtual Address Extension (VAX) sites in Canada, Europe and the United States of America. Seventy-two per cent of the respondents said that a security incident had occurred within the previous 12-month period; 43 per cent indicated that the security incident they had sustained had been a criminal offence. A further 8 per cent were uncertain whether they had sustained a security incident. Similar surveys conducted around the world report significant and widespread abuse and loss. Computer criminals have gained notoriety in the media and appear to have gained more social acceptability than traditional criminals. The suggestion that the computer criminal is a less harmful individual, however, ignores the obvious. The current threat is real. The future threat will be directly determined by the advances made in computer technology. Although it is difficult to quantify the scope of the computer crime problem, public reports have estimated that computer crime costs us between five hundred million and ten billion dollars per year. The Computer Security Institute has surveyed 428 information security specialists in Fortune 500 companies; 42% of the respondents indicated that there was an unauthorized use of their computer systems in the last year. Only a small portion of computer crimes come to the attention of the law enforcement authorities. While it is possible to give an accurate description of the various types of computer offences committed, it has proved difficult to give an accurate, reliable overview of the extent of losses and the actual number of criminal offences. At its Colloquium on Computer Crimes and Other Crimes against Information Technology, held at Wurzburg, Germany, from 5 to 8 October 1992, AIDP released a report on computer crime based on reports of its member countries that estimated that only 5 per cent of computer crime was reported to law enforcement authorities. Law enforcement officials indicate from their experience that recorded computer crime statistics do not represent the actual number of offences; the term â€Å"dark figure†, used by criminologists to refer to unreported crime, has been applied to undiscovered computer crimes. The invisibility of computer crimes is based on several factors. First, sophisticated technology, that is, the immense, compact storage capacity of the computer and the speed with which computers function, ensures that computer crime is very difficult to detect. In contrast to most traditional areas of crime, unknowing victims are often informed after the fact by law enforcement officials that they have sustained a computer crime. Secondly, investigating officials often do not have sufficient training to deal with problems in the complex environment of data processing. Thirdly, many victims do not have a contingency plan for responding to incidents of computer crime, and they may even fail to acknowledge that a security problem exists. The dynamic nature of computer technology, compounded by specific considerations and complications in applying traditional laws to this new technology, dictate that the law enforcement, legal and judicial communities must develop new skills to be able to respond adequately to the challenge presented by computer crime. The growing sophistication of telecommunications systems and the high level of expertise of many system operators complicate significantly the task of regulatory and legal intervention by law enforcement agencies. If the law enforcement community is expected to deal with the problem of computer crime, adequate training sessions must be implemented. To address computer crime, most police departments are allocating a greater proportion of resources to their economic or fraud investigation divisions, since many types of computer crime occur in the course of business transactions or affect financial assets. Accordingly, it is important for investigators to know about business transactions and about the use of computer in business. The ideal situation is to have investigators with not only solid criminal investigation backgrounds but also supplementary technical knowledge. This is similar to the traditional approach, where many police forces ensure that their fraud investigators, although not necessarily accountants, possess a thorough understanding of financial and business record keeping.